Mount Everest: A Complete Guide to the World’s Highest Peak

Introduction

Mount Everest is more than just the world’s highest mountain; it is a monument of history, a place of spiritual significance, and a symbol of human endurance. From its dramatic geological origins to its role in modern tourism, the mountain presents a complex story of ambition, culture, and environmental challenge. This comprehensive guide explores the key facets of Mount Everest, offering a detailed look at its formation, history, and the forces that are shaping its future.

The Genesis of a Giant

The geological story of Mount Everest is one of unimaginable scale, a testament to the Earth’s dynamic and relentless forces. The Himalayas, and Everest itself, are considered geologically young, with their formation beginning just over 65 million years ago. The narrative starts much earlier, however, with the supercontinent Pangaea, which included the landmasses of India, Africa, and Australia as a single entity. Over millions of years, this colossal continent fragmented, and the resulting pieces drifted across the globe.

The dramatic northward movement of the Indo-Australian plate towards the Eurasian plate at a remarkable speed of up to 15 cm per year is what gave rise to Everest. As India charged across the equator, it closed an ancient ocean named Tethys that had separated the fragments of Pangaea. The heavy oceanic floor north of the Indian continent acted as a giant anchor, plunging rapidly into the Earth’s mantle and dragging the Indian continent with it. This subduction generated volcanoes in southern Tibet and squeezed the lightweight sedimentary rocks that had settled on the ocean floor.

Approximately 25 million years ago, the two continents came into direct contact in a titanic collision. Because the Indian continent was composed of light, quartz-rich rocks, it was unable to sink into the dense mantle along with the rest of the plate. Instead, the immense pressure forced it to be driven horizontally beneath Tibet like a giant wedge, forcing the entire Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas upwards. This continuous collision is an ongoing process, a force that causes Everest to grow taller by approximately 4 mm each year.

A powerful physical manifestation of these forces is found at the mountain’s summit, which is composed of limestone deposited 450 million years ago in a tropical marine environment. The presence of ancient marine fossils at the highest point on Earth is a profound illustration of the immense power of plate tectonics, transforming the mountain from a static peak into a dynamic, living entity. The fact that Everest continues to grow annually serves as a constant, tangible reminder of the violent geological history that created it.

Climbing History and Achievements

For decades after its identification, Mount Everest remained unclimbed. The first recorded British reconnaissance expedition in 1921 was forced to approach from the north side, across the Tibetan Plateau, as Nepal was still closed to foreigners. This first foray was followed by a more formal attempt in 1922, which tragically ended when an avalanche killed seven Sherpas, marking the first recorded fatalities on the mountain and revealing its “terrifying defenses”. The most famous of these early attempts was the 1924 expedition, from which George Mallory and Andrew Irvine never returned, sparking an enduring debate over whether they were the first to reach the summit.

The mountain held its ground against ten major expeditions between 1921 and 1953. It was not until May 29, 1953, that a member of the British expedition, led by Sir John Hunt, finally stood on the summit. The successful final push was made by New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary and the highly experienced Sherpa Tenzing Norgay. Their historic climb, using the Southeast Ridge route, captured global attention and changed their lives forever, with Hillary receiving a knighthood before even leaving the mountain. This monumental achievement was the culmination of a massive effort, with the expedition comprising 10 climbers and supported by 320 porters.

Notable Mountaineering Achievements on Everest

Since that inaugural ascent, a rich history of human endeavor has unfolded on the mountain, pushing the boundaries of what is possible.

• First Successful Ascent: Sir Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) & Tenzing Norgay (Nepal) in 1953
• First Ascent from the North Face: Wang Fuzhou, Gongbu, & Qu Yinhua (China) in 1960
• First American Ascent: Jim Whittaker in 1963
• First to Summit Twice: Nawang Gombu in 1963
• First Woman to Summit: Junko Tabei (Japan) in 1975
• First Ascent without Bottled Oxygen: Reinhold Messner & Peter Habeler in 1978
• First Solo Ascent without Oxygen: Reinhold Messner in 1980
• First to Summit Twice in One Year: Ang Rita Sherpa in 1983
• First Sherpa Woman to Summit: Pasang Lhamu Sherpa in 1993
• Longest Time on the Summit (21 hours): Babu Chiri Sherpa in 1999
• First Double Amputee to Summit: Mark Inglis in 2006
• Youngest Person to Summit (13): Jordan Romero in 2010
• Oldest Person to Summit (80): Yuichiro Miura in 2013
• First Female Amputee to Summit: Arunima Sinha in 2013
• First to Summit Twice in Same Season: Churim Sherpa in 2012

South Col vs. North Ridge

Mountaineers typically choose one of two main routes to the summit, each with its own distinct set of challenges and advantages: the Southeast Ridge via the South Col (Nepal) and the North Ridge (Tibet). The pivotal 1953 expedition that succeeded used the South Col route, which became the default due to its relative safety and accessibility. The North Route, in contrast, was only summited successfully in 1960 and is widely considered more technically difficult.

Factor	South Col (Nepal)	North Ridge (Tibet)
Icefall Risk	High (Khumbu Icefall with deep crevasses)	None
Summit Day Duration	12-16 hours	16-20 hours
Acclimatization Approach	Gradual, with lower-altitude base camps and villages	Higher base camp altitude, leading to quicker acclimatization challenges
Rescue Options	Better rescue options, including helicopter evacuations to base camp	Limited infrastructure; no helicopter evacuation, requiring vehicle transport
Technical Difficulty	Considered technically easier, but includes the Khumbu Icefall	Avoids the icefall but includes the steep and technically demanding “Three Steps”
Weather	More sheltered from high winds	Tends to have harsher, hurricane-force winds

The Unsung Heroes: Sherpas and the Everest Economy

Mount Everest’s story is inextricably linked to the Sherpa people, an ethnic group who migrated from eastern Tibet to the Himalayan region centuries ago. They are traditionally Tibetan Buddhists who regard Everest as a sacred dwelling of a protector deity and a “Mother Goddess of the World”. Their deep spiritual beliefs are a cornerstone of their culture, which is also characterized by a strong sense of community and a tradition of selfless aid.

The Sherpa people are indispensable to modern mountaineering. They have gained worldwide recognition for their “courage, tenacity and loyalty” and are instrumental in carrying equipment, fixing ropes, and guiding expeditions. Their ability to operate effectively at high altitudes is partially due to unique genetic adaptations, including the “super-athlete gene” (EPAS1) that regulates the body’s hemoglobin production for efficient oxygen use. While this role is lucrative, with guides earning as much as $10,000 per climb, it also exposes them to immense risk. The data shows that a disproportionate number of Everest fatalities are Sherpa, including the seven killed in a single avalanche in 1922. This highlights the complex ethical dimension of the global Everest industry, where the lives of a local community are central to the success of Western expeditions.

The economy of Nepal is significantly intertwined with Everest tourism. The sector contributes approximately 10% to Nepal’s $24 billion GDP. Everest tourism alone generates about $300 million for the country each year. Permits and fees for Everest expeditions generate about $13,600 per person, with the total cost for a climber, including equipment, guides, and other expenses, averaging $66,000 and potentially reaching as high as $160,000.

The data on recent mountaineering revenue underscores the mountain’s critical role.

Peak	Revenue Collected (NPR, in millions)	Number of Climbers (Spring Season)
Mount Everest	554.99	374
Mount Kanchenjunga	19.746	41
Mount Makalu	16.26	66
Overall Mountaineering Revenue	638.29	869

All data from a recent fiscal year’s spring climbing season.

This table demonstrates the scale of Everest’s contribution relative to other mountains, underscoring why it is so crucial to Nepal’s economy. The economic benefit from this industry creates a powerful incentive for Nepal to continue attracting climbers, a policy that comes into direct conflict with the environmental consequences of over-commercialization. The government’s refusal to cap permits is not an arbitrary decision but a rational economic policy that places short-term revenue generation ahead of long-term ecological and cultural preservation, a central paradox of the modern Everest industry.

The Crisis of Pollution

The influx of climbers and trekkers has transformed Mount Everest into a stark example of environmental degradation. The mountain’s slopes and base camps are severely littered with plastic waste, human excrement, and abandoned climbing gear. The scale of the problem is staggering:

• Climbers produce approximately 14 tons of human waste per season. Only about 5,400 kg is collected annually through organized efforts.
• Over 30 tonnes of climbing gear and other supplies litter the mountain. Cleanup efforts in 2018-2019 managed to remove 251 tons of waste, yet much more remains.
• Microplastics from synthetic gear have been found in snow at elevations up to 8,440m, and chemical contamination from substances like PFAS is 100 times higher than background levels.

The extreme altitude and harsh conditions on Everest exacerbate the problem. The thin air reduces the decomposition rate by 80% compared to sea level, meaning waste takes centuries to break down. The presence of untreated human waste has contaminated local water sources with dangerous diseases such as cholera and hepatitis A. The accumulation of toxic substances—including heavy metals from discarded batteries and chemicals from synthetic gear—leaches into the soil and waterways, posing a risk to both locals and climbers.

The pollution also contributes to a growing climate change problem. Microplastics and soot from burning trash create “dark snow” that absorbs more solar radiation, accelerating glacial melting. This melting, in turn, reveals decades-old debris and even the frozen remains of past climbers, serving as a grim testament to the mountain’s human footprint.

In response to this crisis, the Nepali government has implemented a 2014 deposit plan, requiring summiteers to pay a $4,000 deposit that is only refundable if they return with at least 8 kg of garbage. Additionally, the Nepali army and various NGOs have organized cleanup campaigns, with a recent effort in 2023 removing 35 tons of waste from four summits, including Mount Everest. Innovative solutions, such as the Mount Everest Biogas Project, are also being explored to convert human waste into sustainable fuel for local communities.

However, these efforts are largely reactive and are insufficient to address the root of the issue. They treat the symptoms—the visible waste—but do not address the central problem of over-tourism. The influx of climbers, driven by the economic dependency of Nepal on tourism revenue, outpaces the ability to manage the waste, creating a perpetual cycle of environmental degradation.

The Future of Everest

Mount Everest stands as a complex nexus where geology, human endeavor, culture, and economic forces intersect. Its formation over millions of years and its continued growth highlight its identity as a living mountain, while its spiritual names, Sagarmatha and Chomolungma, reflect the deep reverence it holds for local communities. The history of its exploration is a testament to the indomitable human spirit, marked by both monumental achievements and profound tragedies.

However, the mountain’s future is precarious. The current waste management and conservation efforts are a necessary but insufficient response. The central challenge lies in finding a sustainable equilibrium that balances the economic benefits of tourism with the urgent need for ecological preservation. Stewardship of Mount Everest is a shared responsibility that requires a commitment to protecting its natural and cultural integrity for future generations.

FAQs about Mount Everest